I'm getting more and more confused in regards to C's supersets the further I venture into the programming world. There's just so many versions.. C, C++, C#, Objective-C, Objective-C++ and God knows what else.
I only know tidbits about these languages (some are object-oriented, some are procedural, C was originally developed for UNIX, C++ started as an extension and is used primarily on the Windows OS, Objective-C is primarily used on Linux and Mac OS/iOS, etc), but I'm not even sure that what I know is correct.
I would just like someone to shed some light on what I "know" - a little bit more information about which are successive versions, which platforms each are generally used on, which are the best versions to learn, etc if anyone is feeling generous. :)
Update
Also, I hope to eventually start native (without needs of plugins, such as the .NET framework) application development for Windows and Mac, so can anyone confirm that I would need to learn C++ for Windows and Objective-C for Mac?
C++ started life as "C with classes", in which Bjarne Stroustrup working at AT&T sought to add features like methods and inheritance to C structures in a way that requires as little support from a runtime library as possible. The classes added to "C with classes" are very heavily influenced by the Simula language. It's since grown to include a number of other features, some of the important ones being generics, lambda functions and an expressive standard type library.
Objective-C started life not too dissimilar from its current state, except that it was originally implemented as a C preprocessor. Brad Cox, at his company Stepstone, wanted to combine the power of the Smalltalk object-oriented model with the performance of C native execution. Objective-C uses a dynamic message-passing system to dispatch calls to objects, a design that's directly opposed to C++'s goal of doing everything in the compiler. Thus while objc and c++ start from the same base, the results are very different.
Both of the above language authors also published books explaining the design intention behind their respective languages. Cox's book is long out of print, but both are worth reading if you get the chance. Stroustrup's publications list
Objective-C++ relies on the fact that GCC (or LLVM) can generate code in either language, so the compiler writers allow you to use features from both in the same source file. There are some limits on what's possible at the boundary layer, and Objective-C++ is mainly used either to adapt a C++ library to an Objective-C app or to use STL or Boost data types from C++ inside an Objective-C class.
Finally, languages like C# and Java are not C supersets or C descendants at all. They use C-like syntax to provide some familiarity (and perhaps to avoid having to think about designing a de novo language syntax) but are different beasts that work in a very different way.
You're mixing up the name of the language and what that was meant to imply.
C was first, procedural and low level non-generic (at least not type-safe) as you may know.
Then C++ originated as C with classes, and templates. Later this evolved into something that sets itself apart from C more and more, expanding its standard library in each step. C++ is a multi-aradigm language, meaning it has stuff for procedural, generic, functional (a little) and object-oriented programming. Don't forget about Boost as a powerful extension to the Standard library.
Objective-C is a C expanded with numerous runtime facilities (like messages) to ease object-oriented development. Objective-C++ is the same extensions applied to C++, staying compatible as much as possible with the original language.
C# is something entirely different. Think of it as a hybrid between Java and C++, although that will set bad blood with users of all three languages. It has a garbage collector.
(Objective-)C used primarily on Linux is not entirely correct. All of KDE is C++, for one. C++ primarily on Windows isn't entirely true, the OS API is all C. What Microsoft made of a C++ API (MFC/ATL) is a living hell. Microsoft is pushing C#, along with associated .Net stuff a lot. So think of C# as mostly Windows, although there is ongoing effort to create a cross-platform .Net alternative (mono). Apple's Foundation APIs are Objective-C, but the underlying OS APIs are all still C.
"Supersets" is a wrong terminology. C is not a subset of C++. Both share a common subset. Only Objective-C(++) is a pure superset of C(++).
As to the best versions to learn: the latest, obviously, perhaps limited to the compiler support on the various platforms you will write for.
Related
I am getting into GUI programming with C for fun. I presume that GTK isn't complete enough to deal with potentially all the win32 calls that can be made/hooked. I've gone through the examples from the few sites I could find that give tutorials on the common API calls (with C focus), but when I look up the MSDN on API calls that aren't covered, I see that the explanations/examples are in C++. What do C programmers do at this point?
The examples aren't really there for people to directly copy&paste them. They're just examples. Even if the example is in C++, it gets the point across both for C as well as C++ because both languages share a lot of syntax. And since WINAPI is a C API, even when used with C++, the example code is going to be quite compatible with C; there aren't any classes or templates or anything else C++-related in WINAPI.
As for the reason MS is doing this, it's because Visual Studio is a C++ environment. Yes, there's a C89 compiler included, but it's just for backwards compatibility.
I'm looking for an Ada constructed framework for AI. I think Ada would be perfect for implementing temporal and stochastic paradigms due to its tasking and real-time mechanisms, but did not find anyone who tried to make such a libraries. Actually I did not find strong implementations on other languages too. For C# I found http://www.c-sharpcorner.com/1/56/, and for C++ I found http://mind.sourceforge.net/cpp.html but both did not get much popularity. Maybe java has good AI libraries too, but I do not know. So, do you know an Ada implementation? Would it be useful for more anyone? If you know libraries from other languages, it would be useful to know and compare the implementation models in java, for example. Thanks.
Here's a few resources:
Book, rather old, though (1989): Artificial Intelligence With Ada
Looks like some kind of university student dissertation: MUTANTS: A generic genetic algorithm toolkit for Ada 95
Dmitry Kazakov's AI stuff, mostly fuzzy logic. (Dmitry writes really nice software.)
I once had a school AI project that used the CLIPS AI builder library.
Since I avoid coding in C where I don't have to, I made an Ada Binding to it, which I believe is licensed without restriction. If you want it, have at.
I used it to build an expert system capable of playing a user's opening moves in Empire. All the code is either in Ada, or Clips' expert system specification language.
Here's a potentially useful Java library. I haven't heard of any Ada libraries. Ada is a great language, though.
Here's some genetic stuff.
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I'm looking into a hobby of writing a toy programming language, partly from minor annoyances with other languages, partly so that I can understand what it's like, but mostly just to fool around.
On the off chance that it gets really useful, I don't want it to depend on the run-time of another programming language for programs written in it to run. That is, I want the interpreter / compiler to itself be a program compiled natively into the target OS (language itself may be interpreted / provide a run-time).
Is there any alternative to doing this besides C? What are some advantages / disadvantages or using each?
Clarification 1: I am not intending to go low-level enough to write kernels, filesystems, device drivers, boot loaders. However I would like to be able to manage my own memory.
Clarification 2: Due to a terminology error / misunderstanding, and since I was so used to the C runtime running on various OS's, I said that C does not have a runtime / and or I am not interested in a runtime. A better way to say what I really want is that my programs compile natively into the target (desktop) OS without needing to install additional software from the bootstrapping language.
2.1: if I write the compiler/interpreter in python, I don't want the emitted executables to depend on the python program.
2.2: if I use a compiling step, for instance, to compile the programs using perl, I don't want the emitted executables to depend on a libperl.dll/so.
2.3: the exception is with runtimes is C since the C runtime is usually installed on almost all desktop OS's as many core OS tools depend on it.
You could use any language that has an existing compiler that emits native code without dependencies. C and C++ are pretty good bets because their runtimes are available pretty much everywhere (even more so in C).
One approach in your language build-up that could be well worth trying is this: make your compiler output C (or C++). Then you can use all the existing ecosystem around those languages and their runtimes (linkers, object dumpers, debuggers, etc...), even plan integration with existing code.
Those tools would be useful both for the users of your language, and obviously for yourself while you're experimenting on that toy language.
Once you get to the point where your language is "self-hosted" (i.e. your compiler is written in your own language), you'll be able to start thinking about doing away with the whole C part and write a native code compiler, with its runtime.
Good luck :-)
Also make sure you go look at LLVM. It's a "compiler infrastructure". That is probably the best place to start with these days to implement a new language. The documentation is pretty good, and the tutorials include building a toy language.
C has a runtime... C++ has a slightly bigger minimal run-time than C. Some implementations of Ada have pragmas allowing to check that some features mandating the use of a run-time aren't used (I wonder if they weren't standardized later, I've stopped to follow Ada standardization in the late 90's), making it perhaps having a minimal run-time of the same compexity as C.
PyPy usses RPython to implement python language. Will this work for you?
Haxe is written in OCaml, and I think this is a really good language for writing other languages.
http://haxe.org/
http://caml.inria.fr/
If your going to write bootloaders and kernels then C is your language, otherwise it doesn't matter what language you use to develop your language. Just because your host language has a runtime doesn't automatically mean your target language must have one.
But ofcourse toy languages need a runtime, for example a JVM/LLVM/.NET CLR. Or interpreters. If you don't go for these choices you need to generate machine code that conforms to a ABI, and that is very painfull.
I suggest you look target llvm and generate machine code from there, dalvik might also fit your needs (since it is extremely lightweight).
I think Python is best for you. Python is a programming language that you can work more quickly and integrate your systems more effectively. You can learn to use Python and see almost immediate gains in productivity and lower maintenance costs.
Python, recently, has been ported to the Java and .NET virtual machines.
The most important, Python is free.
I want to do RAD with C, but the only ones I can find only use C++.
Check out Glade, a UI designer for GTK+.
You may have to define what you expect when you use the term RAD. Technically is is a methodology agnostic of language (see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_application_development, to understand what I mean).
If you mean "visual development" (which is the context in which it is applied to tools such as Delphi and C++Builder, primarily as marketing buzzwords and because Microsoft had already essentially trademarked "Visual" with respect to development tools), then use of C would require an application framework and tool to support this. There is a reason why such tools are usually implemented with object-oriented languages; it is a much more natural fit for GUI elements. This being the case, a tool vendor would be unlikely to choose C as the basis for such a tool.
Also it may be useful to understand what platform(s) you wish to target.
A judicious bit of Googling threw up a couple of things that may fit your requirements:
Auto-C
MGui
You may use BCX DevSuite Pro. It comes with GUI Designers that produces BCX code. When you compile BCX code, it produces also C code.
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Where can I find a C programming reference that will list the declaration of built-in functions?
"The C Programming Language"
You can either buy the ISO C standard (drafts are free), or C: A Reference Manual, by Harbison and Steele. Both are very good. The Standard C Library, by P.J. Plauger, is a good book about implementing the standard C library. All of the above have the prototypes of the standard functions in them.
Grab the K&R book, if you don't already have it.
Also, this page looks like it might be a good start for you.
I read Gottfred for C. That was very good to start about programming.
I've always found this website to be useful for C programming;
CPlusPlus.
Even though the title and the website says C++, it has a section for C Reference, with lots of examples.
For quick reference, I like the OpenGroup site
http://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/
It contains the Standard and the POSIX functions with their differences in case that is needed.
Here's a list of the best books. Chose that one that fits specific your needs the best.
A Tour of C++ (Bjarne Stroustrup) The "tour" is a quick (about 180 pages and 14 chapters) tutorial overview of all of standard C++ (language and standard library, and using C++11) at a moderately high level for people who already know C++ or at least are experienced programmers. This book is an extended version of the material that constitutes Chapters 2-5 of The C++ Programming Language, 4th edition.
The C++ Programming Language (Bjarne Stroustrup) (updated for C++11) The classic introduction to C++ by its creator. Written to parallel the classic K&R, this indeed reads very much alike it and covers just about everything from the core language to the standard library, to programming paradigms to the language's philosophy. (Thereby making the latest editions break the 1k page barrier.) [Review] The fourth edition (released on May 19, 2013) covers C++11.
C++ Standard Library Tutorial and Reference (Nicolai Josuttis) (updated for C++11) The introduction and reference for the C++ Standard Library. The second edition (released on April 9, 2012) covers C++11. [Review]
The C++ IO Streams and Locales (Angelika Langer and Klaus Kreft) There's very little to say about this book except that, if you want to know anything about streams and locales, then this is the one place to find definitive answers. [Review]
C++11 References:
The C++ Standard (INCITS/ISO/IEC 14882-2011) This, of course, is the final arbiter of all that is or isn't C++. Be aware, however, that it is intended purely as a reference for experienced users willing to devote considerable time and effort to its understanding. As usual, the first release was quite expensive ($300+ US), but it has now been released in electronic form for $60US
Overview of the New C++ (C++11/14) (PDF only) (Scott Meyers) (updated for C++1y/C++14) These are the presentation materials (slides and some lecture notes) of a three-day training course offered by Scott Meyers, who's a highly respected author on C++. Even though the list of items is short, the quality is high.
Beginner
Introductory
If you are new to programming or if you have experience in other languages and are new to C++, these books are highly recommended.
C++ Primer * (Stanley Lippman, Josée Lajoie, and Barbara E. Moo) (updated for C++11) Coming at 1k pages, this is a very thorough introduction into C++ that covers just about everything in the language in a very accessible format and in great detail. The fifth edition (released August 16, 2012) covers C++11. [Review]
Accelerated C++ (Andrew Koenig and Barbara Moo) This basically covers the same ground as the C++ Primer, but does so on a fourth of its space. This is largely because it does not attempt to be an introduction to programming, but an introduction to C++ for people who've previously programmed in some other language. It has a steeper learning curve, but, for those who can cope with this, it is a very compact introduction into the language. (Historically, it broke new ground by being the first beginner's book using a modern approach at teaching the language.) [Review]
Thinking in C++ (Bruce Eckel) Two volumes; second is more about standard library, but still very good
Programming: Principles and Practice Using C++ (Bjarne Stroustrup) An introduction to programming using C++ by the creator of the language. A good read, that assumes no previous programming experience, but is not only for beginners. (The 2nd Edition (updated for C++11) is coming.)
Not to be confused with C++ Primer Plus (Stephen Prata), with a significantly less favorable review.
Best practices
Effective C++ (Scott Meyers) This was written with the aim of being the best second book C++ programmers should read, and it succeeded. Earlier editions were aimed at programmers coming from C, the third edition changes this and targets programmers coming from languages like Java. It presents ~50 easy-to-remember rules of thumb along with their rationale in a very accessible (and enjoyable) style. [Review]
Effective STL (Scott Meyers) This aims to do the same to the part of the standard library coming from the STL what Effective C++ did to the language as a whole: It presents rules of thumb along with their rationale. [Review]
Intermediate
More Effective C++ (Scott Meyers) Even more rules of thumb than Effective C++. Not as important as the ones in the first book, but still good to know.
Exceptional C++ (Herb Sutter) Presented as a set of puzzles, this has one of the best and thorough discussions of the proper resource management and exception safety in C++ through Resource Acquisition is Initialization (RAII) in addition to in-depth coverage of a variety of other topics including the pimpl idiom, name lookup, good class design, and the C++ memory model. [Review]
More Exceptional C++ (Herb Sutter) Covers additional exception safety topics not covered in Exceptional C++, in addition to discussion of effective object oriented programming in C++ and correct use of the STL. [Review]
Exceptional C++ Style (Herb Sutter) Discusses generic programming, optimization, and resource management; this book also has an excellent exposition of how to write modular code in C++ by using nonmember functions and the single responsibility principle. [Review]
C++ Coding Standards (Herb Sutter and Andrei Alexandrescu) "Coding standards" here doesn't mean "how many spaces should I indent my code?" This book contains 101 best practices, idioms, and common pitfalls that can help you to write correct, understandable, and efficient C++ code. [Review]
C++ Templates: The Complete Guide (David Vandevoorde and Nicolai M. Josuttis) This is the book about templates as they existed before C++11. It covers everything from the very basics to some of the most advanced template metaprogramming and explains every detail of how templates work (both conceptually and at how they are implemented) and discusses many common pitfalls. Has excellent summaries of the One Definition Rule (ODR) and overload resolution in the appendices. A second edition is scheduled for 2015. [Review]
Advanced
Modern C++ Design (Andrei Alexandrescu) A groundbreaking book on advanced generic programming techniques. Introduces policy-based design, type lists, and fundamental generic programming idioms then explains how many useful design patterns (including small object allocators, functors, factories, visitors, and multimethods) can be implemented efficiently, modularly, and cleanly using generic programming. [Review]
C++ Template Metaprogramming (David Abrahams and Aleksey Gurtovoy)
C++ Concurrency In Action (Anthony Williams) A book covering C++11 concurrency support including the thread library, the atomics library, the C++ memory model, locks and mutexes, as well as issues of designing and debugging multithreaded applications.
Advanced C++ Metaprogramming (Davide Di Gennaro) A pre-C++11 manual of TMP techniques, focused more on practice than theory. There are a ton of snippets in this book, some of which are made obsolete by typetraits, but the techniques, are nonetheless, useful to know. If you can put up with the quirky formatting/editing, it is easier to read than Alexandrescu, and arguably, more rewarding. For more experienced developers, there is a good chance that you may pick up something about a dark corner of C++ (a quirk) that usually only comes about through extensive experience.
Classics / Older
Note: Some information contained within these books may not be up-to-date or no longer considered best practice.
The Design and Evolution of C++ (Bjarne Stroustrup) If you want to know why the language is the way it is, this book is where you find answers. This covers everything before the standardization of C++.
Ruminations on C++ - (Andrew Koenig and Barbara Moo) [Review]
Advanced C++ Programming Styles and Idioms (James Coplien) A predecessor of the pattern movement, it describes many C++-specific "idioms". It's certainly a very good book and still worth a read if you can spare the time, but quite old and not up-to-date with current C++.
Large Scale C++ Software Design (John Lakos) Lakos explains techniques to manage very big C++ software projects. Certainly a good read, if it only was up to date. It was written long before C++98, and misses on many features (e.g. namespaces) important for large scale projects. If you need to work in a big C++ software project, you might want to read it, although you need to take more than a grain of salt with it. There's been the rumor that Lakos is writing an up-to-date edition of the book for years.
Inside the C++ Object Model (Stanley Lippman) If you want to know how virtual member functions are commonly implemented and how base objects are commonly laid out in memory in a multi-inheritance scenario, and how all this affects performance, this is where you will find thorough discussions of such topics.
Best book for C for beginners is Let Us C by Yashwant Kanetkar
My recommendation to beginners in c programming is "Let Us C" by "Yashwant Kanetkar"