I often see code such as the following when, e.g., representing a large bitmap in memory:
size_t width = 1280;
size_t height = 800;
size_t bytesPerPixel = 3;
size_t bytewidth = ((width * bytesPerPixel) + 3) & ~3; /* Aligned to 4 bytes */
uint8_t *pixelData = malloc(bytewidth * height);
(that is, a bitmap allocated as a contiguous block of memory having a bytewidth aligned to a certain number of bytes, most commonly 4.)
A point on the image is then given via:
pixelData + (bytewidth * y) + (bytesPerPixel * x)
This leads me to two questions:
Does aligning a buffer like this have a performance impact on modern processors? Should I be worrying about alignment at all, or will the compiler handle this?
If it does have an impact, could someone point me to a resource to find the ideal byte alignment for various processors?
Thanks.
It depends on a lot of factors. If you're only accessing the pixel data one byte at a time, the alignment will not make any difference the vast majority of the time. For reading/writing one byte of data, most processors won't care at all whether that byte is on a 4-byte boundary or not.
However, if you're accessing data in units larger than a byte (say, in 2-byte or 4-byte units), then you will definitely see alignment effects. For some processors (e.g. many RISC processors), it is outright illegal to access unaligned data on certain levels: attempting to read a 4-byte word from an address that's not 4-byte aligned will generate a Data Access Exception (or Data Storage Exception) on a PowerPC, for example.
On other processors (e.g. x86), accessing unaligned addresses is permitted, but it often comes with a hidden performance penalty. Memory loads/stores are often implemented in microcode, and the microcode will detect the unaligned access. Normally, the microcode will fetch the proper 4-byte quantity from memory, but if it's not aligned, it will have to fetch two 4-byte locations from memory and reconstruct the desired 4-byte quantity from the appropriate bytes of the two locations. Fetching two memory locations is obviously slower than one.
That's just for simple loads and stores, though. Some instructions, such as those in the MMX or SSE instruction sets, require their memory operands to be properly aligned. If you attempt to access unaligned memory using those special instructions, you'll see something like an illegal instruction exception.
To summarize, I wouldn't really worry too much about alignment unless you're writing super performance-critical code (e.g. in assembly). The compiler helps you out a lot, e.g. by padding structures so that 4-byte quantities are aligned on 4-byte boundaries, and on x86, the CPU also helps you out when dealing with unaligned accesses. Since the pixel data you're dealing with is in quantities of 3 bytes, you'll almost always being doing single byte accesses anyways.
If you decide you instead want to access pixels in singular 4-byte accesses (as opposed to 3 1-byte accesses), it would be better to use 32-bit pixels and have each individual pixel aligned on a 4-byte boundary. Aligning each row to a 4-byte boundary but not each pixel will have little, if any, effect.
Based on your code, I'm guessing it's related to reading the Windows bitmap file format -- bitmap files require the length of each scanline to be a multiple of 4 bytes, so setting up your pixel data buffers with that property has the property that you can just read in the entire bitmap in one fell swoop into your buffer (of course, you still have to deal with the fact that the scanlines are stored bottom-to-top instead of top-to-bottom and that the pixel data is BGR instead of RGB). This isn't really much of an advantage, though -- it's not that much harder to read in the bitmap one scanline at a time.
Yes, alignment does have a performance impact on modern-- let's say x86--processors. Generally, loads and stores of data happen on natural alignment boundaries; if you're getting a 32-bit value into a register, it's going to be fastest if it's aligned on a 32-bit boundary already. If it's not, the x86 will "take care of it for you", in the sense that the CPU will still do the load, but it will take a significantly larger number of cycles to do it, because there will be internal wrangling to "re-align" the access.
Of course, in most cases, this overhead is trivial. Structures of binary data are frequently packed together in unaligned ways for transport over the network or for persistence on disk, and the size benefits of the packed storage outweigh any perf hit from operating occasionally on this data.
But particularly with large buffers of uniform data that get accessed randomly and where performance in the aggregate really is important, as in your pixel buffer above, keeping data structures aligned can still be beneficial.
Note that in the case of the example you give above, only each "line" of pixel data is aligned. The pixels themselves are still 3 bytes long and often unaligned within the "lines", so there's not much benefit here. There are texture formats, for example, that have 3 bytes of real data per pixel, and literally just waste an extra byte on each one to keep the data aligned.
There's some more general information here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_structure_alignment
(The specific characteristics vary between architectures, both in what the natural alignments are, whether the CPU handles unaligned loads/stores automatically, and in how expensive those end up being. In cases where the CPU doesn't handle access magically, often the compiler/C runtime will do what it can to do this work for you.)
Buffer alignment has an impact. The question is: is it a significant impact? The answer can be highly application specific. In architectures which do not natively support unaligned access—for example, the 68000 and 68010 (the 68020 adds unaligned access)—it's truly a performance and/or maintenance problem since the CPU will fault, or maybe trap to a handler to perform unaligned access.
The ideal alignment for various processors can be estimated: 4-byte alignment is appropriate for architectures with a 32-bit data path. 8-byte alignment for 64-bit. However, L1 caching has an effect. For many CPUs this is 64 bytes though it will no doubt change in the future.
Too high of an alignment (that is, eight byte where only two byte is needed) causes no performance inefficiency for any narrower system, even on an 8-bit microcontroller. It simply wastes (potentially) a few bytes of storage.
Your example is rather peculiar: the 3-byte elements have a 50% chance of individually being unaligned (to 32 bits), so aligning the buffer seems pointless—at least for performance reasons. However, in the case of a bulk transfer of the whole thing, it optimizes the first access. Note that an unaligned first byte might also have a performance impact in the transfer to a video controller.
Does aligning a buffer like this have a performance impact on modern processors?
Yes. For instance if memcpy is optimized using SIMD instructions (like MMX/SSE) some operations will be faster with aligned memory. In some architectures there are (processor) instructions that fail if the data is not aligned, thus something might work on your machine but not in another one.
With aligned data you also make a better use of the CPU caches.
Should I be worrying about alignment at all, or will the compiler handle this?
I should worry about alignment when I use dynamic memory and the compiler cannot handle this (see the reply to this comment).
For other stuff in your code you have the -malign flag and aligned attribute to play with.
Related
Admittedly I don't get it. Say you have a memory with a memory word of length of 1 byte. Why can't you access a 4 byte long variable in a single memory access on an unaligned address(i.e. not divisible by 4), as it's the case with aligned addresses?
The memory subsystem on a modern processor is restricted to accessing memory at the granularity and alignment of its word size; this is the case for a number of reasons.
Speed
Modern processors have multiple levels of cache memory that data must be pulled through; supporting single-byte reads would make the memory subsystem throughput tightly bound to the execution unit throughput (aka cpu-bound); this is all reminiscent of how PIO mode was surpassed by DMA for many of the same reasons in hard drives.
The CPU always reads at its word size (4 bytes on a 32-bit processor), so when you do an unaligned address access — on a processor that supports it — the processor is going to read multiple words. The CPU will read each word of memory that your requested address straddles. This causes an amplification of up to 2X the number of memory transactions required to access the requested data.
Because of this, it can very easily be slower to read two bytes than four. For example, say you have a struct in memory that looks like this:
struct mystruct {
char c; // one byte
int i; // four bytes
short s; // two bytes
}
On a 32-bit processor it would most likely be aligned like shown here:
The processor can read each of these members in one transaction.
Say you had a packed version of the struct, maybe from the network where it was packed for transmission efficiency; it might look something like this:
Reading the first byte is going to be the same.
When you ask the processor to give you 16 bits from 0x0005 it will have to read a word from 0x0004 and shift left 1 byte to place it in a 16-bit register; some extra work, but most can handle that in one cycle.
When you ask for 32 bits from 0x0001 you'll get a 2X amplification. The processor will read from 0x0000 into the result register and shift left 1 byte, then read again from 0x0004 into a temporary register, shift right 3 bytes, then OR it with the result register.
Range
For any given address space, if the architecture can assume that the 2 LSBs are always 0 (e.g., 32-bit machines) then it can access 4 times more memory (the 2 saved bits can represent 4 distinct states), or the same amount of memory with 2 bits for something like flags. Taking the 2 LSBs off of an address would give you a 4-byte alignment; also referred to as a stride of 4 bytes. Each time an address is incremented it is effectively incrementing bit 2, not bit 0, i.e., the last 2 bits will always continue to be 00.
This can even affect the physical design of the system. If the address bus needs 2 fewer bits, there can be 2 fewer pins on the CPU, and 2 fewer traces on the circuit board.
Atomicity
The CPU can operate on an aligned word of memory atomically, meaning that no other instruction can interrupt that operation. This is critical to the correct operation of many lock-free data structures and other concurrency paradigms.
Conclusion
The memory system of a processor is quite a bit more complex and involved than described here; a discussion on how an x86 processor actually addresses memory can help (many processors work similarly).
There are many more benefits to adhering to memory alignment that you can read at this IBM article.
A computer's primary use is to transform data. Modern memory architectures and technologies have been optimized over decades to facilitate getting more data, in, out, and between more and faster execution units–in a highly reliable way.
Bonus: Caches
Another alignment-for-performance that I alluded to previously is alignment on cache lines which are (for example, on some CPUs) 64B.
For more info on how much performance can be gained by leveraging caches, take a look at Gallery of Processor Cache Effects; from this question on cache-line sizes
Understanding of cache lines can be important for certain types of program optimizations. For example, the alignment of data may determine whether an operation touches one or two cache lines. As we saw in the example above, this can easily mean that in the misaligned case, the operation will be twice slower.
It's a limitation of many underlying processors. It can usually be worked around by doing 4 inefficient single byte fetches rather than one efficient word fetch, but many language specifiers decided it would be easier just to outlaw them and force everything to be aligned.
There is much more information in this link that the OP discovered.
you can with some processors (the nehalem can do this), but previously all memory access was aligned on a 64-bit (or 32-bit) line, because the bus is 64 bits wide, you had to fetch 64 bit at a time, and it was significantly easier to fetch these in aligned 'chunks' of 64 bits.
So, if you wanted to get a single byte, you fetched the 64-bit chunk and then masked off the bits you didn't want. Easy and fast if your byte was at the right end, but if it was in the middle of that 64-bit chunk, you'd have to mask off the unwanted bits and then shift the data over to the right place. Worse, if you wanted a 2 byte variable, but that was split across 2 chunks, then that required double the required memory accesses.
So, as everyone thinks memory is cheap, they just made the compiler align the data on the processor's chunk sizes so your code runs faster and more efficiently at the cost of wasted memory.
Fundamentally, the reason is because the memory bus has some specific length that is much, much smaller than the memory size.
So, the CPU reads out of the on-chip L1 cache, which is often 32KB these days. But the memory bus that connects the L1 cache to the CPU will have the vastly smaller width of the cache line size. This will be on the order of 128 bits.
So:
262,144 bits - size of memory
128 bits - size of bus
Misaligned accesses will occasionally overlap two cache lines, and this will require an entirely new cache read in order to obtain the data. It might even miss all the way out to the DRAM.
Furthermore, some part of the CPU will have to stand on its head to put together a single object out of these two different cache lines which each have a piece of the data. On one line, it will be in the very high order bits, in the other, the very low order bits.
There will be dedicated hardware fully integrated into the pipeline that handles moving aligned objects onto the necessary bits of the CPU data bus, but such hardware may be lacking for misaligned objects, because it probably makes more sense to use those transistors for speeding up correctly optimized programs.
In any case, the second memory read that is sometimes necessary would slow down the pipeline no matter how much special-purpose hardware was (hypothetically and foolishly) dedicated to patching up misaligned memory operations.
#joshperry has given an excellent answer to this question. In addition to his answer, I have some numbers that show graphically the effects which were described, especially the 2X amplification. Here's a link to a Google spreadsheet showing what the effect of different word alignments look like.
In addition here's a link to a Github gist with the code for the test.
The test code is adapted from the article written by Jonathan Rentzsch which #joshperry referenced. The tests were run on a Macbook Pro with a quad-core 2.8 GHz Intel Core i7 64-bit processor and 16GB of RAM.
If you have a 32bit data bus, the address bus address lines connected to the memory will start from A2, so only 32bit aligned addresses can be accessed in a single bus cycle.
So if a word spans an address alignment boundary - i.e. A0 for 16/32 bit data or A1 for 32 bit data are not zero, two bus cycles are required to obtain the data.
Some architectures/instruction sets do not support unaligned access and will generate an exception on such attempts, so compiler generated unaligned access code requires not just additional bus cycles, but additional instructions, making it even less efficient.
If a system with byte-addressable memory has a 32-bit-wide memory bus, that means there are effectively four byte-wide memory systems which are all wired to read or write the same address. An aligned 32-bit read will require information stored in the same address in all four memory systems, so all systems can supply data simultaneously. An unaligned 32-bit read would require some memory systems to return data from one address, and some to return data from the next higher address. Although there are some memory systems that are optimized to be able to fulfill such requests (in addition to their address, they effectively have a "plus one" signal which causes them to use an address one higher than specified) such a feature adds considerable cost and complexity to a memory system; most commodity memory systems simply cannot return portions of different 32-bit words at the same time.
On PowerPC you can load an integer from an odd address with no problems.
Sparc and I86 and (I think) Itatnium raise hardware exceptions when you try this.
One 32 bit load vs four 8 bit loads isnt going to make a lot of difference on most modern processors. Whether the data is already in cache or not will have a far greater effect.
The function mkl_malloc is similar to malloc but has an extra alignment argument. Here's the prototype:
void* mkl_malloc (size_t alloc_size, int alignment);
I've noticed different performances with different values of alignment. Apart from trial and error, is there a canonical or documented methodical way to decide on the best value of alignment? i.e. processor being used, function being called, operation being performed etc.
This question widely applicable to anyone who uses MKL so I'm very surprised it is not in the reference manual.
update: I have tried with mkl_sparse_spmm and have not noticed a significant difference in performance for setting the alignment to powers of 2 up to 1024 bytes, after that the performance tends to drop. I'm using an Intel Xeon E5-2683.
Alignment only affects performance when SSE/AVX instructions can be used - this is commonly true when operating with arrays as you wish to apply the same operation to a range of elements.
In general, you want to choose alignment based on the CPU, if it supports AVX2 which has 256bit registers, then you want 32 byte alignment, if it supports AVX512, then 64 bytes would be optimal.
To that end, mkl_malloc will guarantee alignment to the value you specify, however, obviously if the data are 32-byte aligned, then they are also aligned to a (16, 8, 4...)-byte boundary. The purpose of the call is to ensure this is always the case and thus avoid any potential complications.
On my machine (Linux kernel 4.17.11 running on i7 6700K), the default alignment of mkl_malloc seems to be 128-bytes (for large enough arrays, if they are too small the value seems to be 32KB), in other words, any value smaller than that has no effect on alignment, I can however input 256 and the data will be aligned to the 256-byte boundary.
In contrast, using malloc gives me 16byte alignment for 1GB of data and 32-byte alignment for 1KB, whatever the OS gives me with absolutely no preference regarding alignment.
So using mkl_malloc makes sense as it ensures you get the alignment you desire. However, that doesn't mean you should set the value to be too large, that will simply cause you to waste memory and potentially expose you to an increased number of cache misses.
In short, you want your data to be aligned to the size of the vector registers in your CPU so that you can make use of the relevant extensions. Using mkl_malloc with some parameter for alignment guarantees alignment to at least that value, it can however be more. It should be used to make sure the data are aligned the way you want, but there is absolutely no good reason to align to 1MB.
The only reason, why regardless of your input, you have no penalties / gains from specifying the alignment is that you get machine aligned memory no matter what you type in. So on your processor, which supports AVX, you are always getting 32 byte aligned memory regardless of your input.
You will also see, that whatever alignment value you go for, the memory address, which mkl_malloc, returns is divisible 32-aligned. Alternatively you may test that low level intrisics like _mm256_load_pd, which would seg fault, when a not 32 byte aligned address is used never seg fault.
Some minor details: OSX always gives you 32 byte address, independant of heap / stack when you allocate a chunk of memory, while Linux will always give you aligned memory, when allocating on heap. Stack is a matter of luck on Linux, but you exceed with small matrix size already the limit for stack allocations. I have no understanding of memory allocation on Windows.
I noticed the latter, when I was writing tests for my numerics library where I use std::vector<typename T, alignment A> for memory allocation and smaller matrix tests sometimes seg faulted on Linux.
TLDR: your alignment input is effectively discarded and you are getting machine alignment regardless.
I think there can be no "best" value for alignment. Depending on your architecture, alignment is generally a property enforced by the hardware, for optimization reasons mostly.
Coming to your specific question, it's important to state what exactly are you allocating memory for? What piece of hw accesses the memory? For e.g., I have worked with DMA engines which required the source address to be aligned to per transaction transfer size(where xfer size = 4, 8, 16, 32, 128). I also worked with vector registers where it was wise to have a 128 bit aligned load.
To summarize: It depends.
I understand word-alignment, which makes the cpu only need to read once when reading an integer into a register.
But is 8-byte alignment (let's assume 32bit system) for "double" necessary? What is the benefit? What will happen if the space for storing a "double" is just 4-byte alignment?
There are multiple hardware components that may be adversely affected by unaligned loads or stores.
The interface to memory might be eight bytes wide and only able to access memory at multiples of eight bytes. Loading an unaligned eight-byte double then requires two reads on the bus. Stores are worse, because an aligned eight-byte store can simply write eight bytes to memory, but an unaligned eight-byte store must read two eight-byte pieces, merge the new data with the old data, and write two eight-byte pieces.
Cache lines are typically 32 or 64 bytes. If eight-byte objects are aligned to multiples of eight bytes, then each object is in just one cache line. If they are unaligned, then some of the objects are partly in one cache line and partly in another. Loading or storing these objects then requires using two cache lines instead of one. This effect occurs at all levels of cache (three levels is not uncommon in modern processors).
Memory system pages are typically 512 bytes or more. Again, each aligned object is in just one page, but some unaligned objects are in multiple pages. Each page that is accessed requires hardware resources: The virtual address must be translated to a physical address, this may require accessing translation tables, and address collisions must be detected. (Processors may have multiple load and store operations in operation simultaneously. Even though your program may appear to be single-threaded, the processor reads instructions in advance and tries to execute those that it can. So a processor may start a load instruction before preceding instructions have completed. However, to be sure this does not cause an error, the processor checks each load instruction to be sure it is not loading from an address that a prior store instruction is changing. If an access crosses a page boundary, the two parts of the loaded data have to be checked separately.)
The response of the system to unaligned operations varies from system to system. Some systems are designed to support only aligned accesses. In these cases, unaligned accesses either cause exceptions that lead to program termination or exceptions that cause execution of special handlers that emulate unaligned operations in software (by performing aligned operations and merging the data as necessary). Software handlers such as these are much slower than hardware operations.
Some systems support unaligned accesses, but this usually consumes more hardware resources than aligned accesses. In the best case, the hardware performs two operations instead of one. But some hardware is designed to start operations as if they were aligned and then, upon discovering the operation is not aligned, to abort it and start over using different paths in the hardware to handle the unaligned operation. In such systems, unaligned accesses have a significant performance penalty, although it is not as great as in systems where software handles unaligned accesses.
In some systems, the hardware may have multiple load-store execution units that can perform the two operations required of unaligned accesses just as quickly as one unit can perform the operation of aligned accesses. So there is no direct performance degradation of unaligned accesses. However, because multiple execution units are kept busy by unaligned accesses, they are unavailable to perform other operations. Thus, programs that perform many load-store operations, normally in parallel, will execute more slowly with unaligned accesses than with aligned accesses.
On many architectures, unaligned access of any load/store unit (short, int, long) is simply an exception. Compilers are responsible for ensuring it doesn't happen on potentially mis-aligned data, by emitting smaller access instructions and re-assembling in registers if they can't prove a given pointer is OK.
Performance-wise, 8-byte alignment of doubles on 32-bit systems can be valuable for a few reasons. The most apparent is that 4-byte alignment of an 8-byte double means that one element could cross the boundary of two cache lines. Memory access occurs in units of whole cache lines, and so misalignment doubles the cost of access.
I seem to remember that the recommendation for 486 was to align double on 32 bits boundaries, so requiring 64 bits alignment is not mandatory.
You seem to think that there is a relationship between the data bus width and the processor bitness. While it is often the case, you can find variation in both direction. For instance the Pentium was a 32-bit processor, but its data bus size was 64 bits.
Caches offer something else which may explain the usefulness of having 64-bit alignment for 64-bit types. Here the external bus is not a factor, it is the cache line size which is important. Data crossing the line cache is costlier to access than data not crossing it (even if it is unaligned in both cases). Aligning types on their size makes it sure that they won't cross cache lines as long as cache line size is a multiple of the type size.
I just found the answer:
"6. When memory reading is efficient in reading 4 bytes at a time on 32 bit machine, why should a double type be aligned on 8 byte boundary?
It is important to note that most of the processors will have math co-processor, called Floating Point Unit (FPU). Any floating point operation in the code will be translated into FPU instructions. The main processor is nothing to do with floating point execution. All this will be done behind the scenes.
As per standard, double type will occupy 8 bytes. And, every floating point operation performed in FPU will be of 64 bit length. Even float types will be promoted to 64 bit prior to execution.
The 64 bit length of FPU registers forces double type to be allocated on 8 byte boundary. I am assuming (I don’t have concrete information) in case of FPU operations, data fetch might be different, I mean the data bus, since it goes to FPU. Hence, the address decoding will be different for double types (which is expected to be on 8 byte boundary). It means, the address decoding circuits of floating point unit will not have last 3 pins."
Edited:
The advantage of byte alignment is to reduce the number of memory cycles to retrieve the data. For example, an 8 byte which might take a single cycle if it is aligned might now take 2 cycles since a part of it is obtained the first time and the second part in the next memory cycle.
I came across this:
"Aligned access is faster because the external bus to memory is not a single byte wide - it is typically 4 or 8 bytes wide (or even wider). So the CPU doesn't fetch a single byte at a time - it fetches 4 or 8 bytes starting at the requested address. Therefore, the 2 or 3 least significant bits of the memory address are not actually sent by the CPU - the external memory can only be read or written at addresses that are a multiple of the bus width. If you requested a byte at address "9", the CPU would actually ask the memory for the block of bytes beginning at address 8, and load the second one into your register (discarding the others).
This implies that a misaligned access can require two reads from memory: If you ask for 8 bytes beginning at address 9, the CPU must fetch the 8 bytes beginning at address 8 as well as the 8 bytes beginning at address 16, then mask out the bytes you wanted. On the other hand, if you ask for the 8 bytes beginning at address 8, then only a single fetch is needed. Some CPUs will not even perform such a misaligned load - they will simply raise an exception (or even silently load the wrong data!)."
You might see this link for more details.
http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/pa-dalign/
I heard a lot that data should be properly aligned in memory for better access efficiency. CPU access memory on a word boundary.
So in the following scenario, the CPU has to make 2 memory accesses to get a single word.
Supposing: 1 word = 4 bytes
("|" stands for word boundary. "o" stands for byte boundary)
|----o----o----o----|----o----o----o----| (The word boundary in CPU's eye)
----o----o----o---- (What I want to read from memory)
Why should this happen? What's the root cause of the CPU can only read at the word boundary?
If the CPU can only access at the 4-byte word boundary, the address line should only need 30bit, not 32bit width. Cause the last 2bit are always 0 in CPU's eye.
ADD 1
And even more, if we admit that CPU must read at the word boundary, why can't the boundary start at where I want to read? It seems that the boundary is fixed in CPU's eye.
ADD 2
According to AnT, it seems that the boundary setting is hardwired and it is hardwired by the memory access hardware. CPU is just innocent as far as this is concerned.
The meaning of "can" (in "...CPU can access...") in this case depends on the hardware platform.
On x86 platform CPU instructions can access data aligned on absolutely any boundary, not only on "word boundary". The misaligned access might be less efficient than aligned access, but the reasons for that have absolutely nothing to do with CPU. It has everything to do with how the underlying low-level memory access hardware works. It is quite possible that in this case the memory-related hardware will have to make two accesses to the actual memory, but that's something CPU instructions don't know about and don't need to know about. As far as CPU is concerned, it can access any data on any boundary. The rest is implemented transparently to CPU instructions.
On hardware platforms like Sun SPARC, CPU cannot access misaligned data (in simple words, your program will crash if you attempt to), which means that if for some reason you need to perform this kind of misaligned access, you'll have to implement it manually and explicitly: split it into two (or more) CPU instructions and thus explicitly perform two (or more) memory accesses.
As for why it is so... well, that's just how modern computer memory hardware works. The data has to be aligned. If it is not aligned, the access either is less efficient or does not work at all.
A very simplified model of modern memory would be a grid of cells (rows and columns), each cell storing a word of data. A programmable robotic arm can put a word into a specific cell and retrieve a word from a specific cell. One at a time. If your data is spread across several cells, you have no other choice but to make several consecutive trips with that robotic arm. On some hardware platforms the task of organizing these consecutive trips is hidden from CPU (meaning that the arm itself knows what to do to assemble the necessary data from several pieces), on other platforms it is visible to the CPU (meaning that it is the CPU who's responsible for organizing these consecutive trips of the arm).
It saves silicon in the addressing logic if you can make certain assumptions about the address (like "bottom n bits are zero). Some CPUs (x86 and their work-alikes) will put logic in place to turn misaligned data into multiple fetches, concealing some nasty performance hits from the programmer. Most CPUs outside of that world will instead raise a hardware error explaining in no uncertain terms that they don't like this.
All the arguments you're going to hear about "efficiency" are bollocks or, more precisely are begging the question. The real reason is simply that it saves silicon in the processor core if the number of address bits can be reduced for operations. Any inefficiency that arises from misaligned access (like in the x86 world) are a result of the hardware design decisions, not intrinsic to addressing in general.
Now that being said, for most use cases the hardware design decision makes sense. If you're accessing data in two-byte words, most common use cases have you access offset, then offset+2, then offset+4 and so on. Being able to increment the address byte-wise while accessing two-byte words is typically (as in 99.44% certainly) not what you want to be doing. As such it doesn't hurt to require address offsets to align on word boundaries (it's a mild, one-time inconvenience when you design your data structures) but it sure does save on your silicon.
As a historical aside, I worked once on an Interdata Model 70 -- a 16-bit minicomputer. It required all memory access to be 16-bit aligned. It also had a very small amount of memory by the time I was working on it by the standards of the time. (It was a relic even back then.) The word-alignment was used to double the memory capacity since the wire-wrapped CPU could be easily hacked. New address decode logic was added that took a 1 in the low bit of the address (previously an alignment error in the making) and used it to switch to a second bank of memory. Try that without alignment logic! :)
Because it is more efficient.
In your example, the CPU would have to do two reads: it has to read in the first half, then read in the second half separately, then reassemble them together to do the computation. This is much more complicated and slower than doing the read in one go if the data was properly aligned.
Some processors, like x86, can tolerate misaligned data access (so you would still need all 32 bits) - others like Itanium absolutely cannot handle misaligned data accesses and will complain quite spectacularly.
Word alignment is not only featured by CPUs
On the hardware level, most RAM-Modules have a given Word size in respect to the amount of bits that can be accessed per read/write cycle.
On a module I had to interface on an embedded device, addressing was implemented through three parameters: The module was organized in four banks which could be selected prior to the RW operation. each of this banks was essentially a large table 32-bit words, wich could be adressed through a row and column index.
In this design, access was only possible per cell, so every read operation returned 4 bytes, and every write operation expected 4 bytes.
A memory controller hooked up to this RAM chip could be desigend in two ways: either allowing unrestricted access to the memory chip using several cycles to split/merge unaligned data to/from several cells (with additional logic), or imposing some restrictions on how memory can be accessed with the gain of reduced complexity.
As complexity can impede maintainability and performance, most designers chose the latter [citation needed]
Pardon me if you feel this has been answered numerous times, but I need answers to the following queries!
Why data has to be aligned (on 2-byte / 4-byte / 8-byte boundaries)? Here my doubt is when the CPU has address lines Ax Ax-1 Ax-2 ... A2 A1 A0 then it is quite possible to address the memory locations sequentially. So why there is the need to align the data at specific boundaries?
How to find the alignment requirements when I am compiling my code and generating the executable?
If for e.g the data alignment is 4-byte boundary, does that mean each consecutive byte is located at modulo 4 offsets? My doubt is if data is 4-byte aligned does that mean that if a byte is at 1004 then the next byte is at 1008 (or at 1005)?
CPUs are word oriented, not byte oriented. In a simple CPU, memory is generally configured to return one word (32bits, 64bits, etc) per address strobe, where the bottom two (or more) address lines are generally don't-care bits.
Intel CPUs can perform accesses on non-word boundries for many instructions, however there is a performance penalty as internally the CPU performs two memory accesses and a math operation to load one word. If you are doing byte reads, no alignment applies.
Some CPUs (ARM, or Intel SSE instructions) require aligned memory and have undefined operation when doing unaligned accesses (or throw an exception). They save significant silicon space by not implementing the much more complicated load/store subsystem.
Alignment depends on the CPU word size (16, 32, 64bit) or in the case of SSE the SSE register size (128 bits).
For your last question, if you are loading a single data byte at a time there is no alignment restriction on most CPUs (some DSPs don't have byte level instructions, but its likely you won't run into one).
Very little data "has" to be aligned. It's more that certain types of data may perform better or certain cpu operations require a certain data alignment.
First of all, let's say you're reading 4 bytes of data at a time. Let's also say that your CPU has a 32 bit data buss. Let's also say your data is stored at byte 2 in the system memory.
Now since you can load 4 bytes of data at once, it doesn't make too much sense to have your Address register to point to a single byte. By making your address register point to every 4 bytes you can manipulate 4 times the data. So in other words your CPU may only be able to read data starting at bytes 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, etc.
So here's the issue. If you want the data starting at byte 2 and you're reading 4 bytes, then half your data will be in address position 0 and the other half in position 1.
So basically you'd end up hitting the memory twice to read your one 4 byte data element. Some CPUs don't support this sort of operation (or force you to load and combine the two results manually).
Go here for more details: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_structure_alignment
1.) Some architectures do not have this requirement at all, some encourage alignment (there is a speed penalty when accessing non-alignet data items), and some may enforce it strictly (misaligment causes a processor exception).
Many of todays popular architectures fall in the speed penalty category. The CPU designers had to make a trade between flexibility/performance and cost (silicon area/number of control signals required for bus cycles).
2.) What language, which architecture? Consult your compilers manual and/or the CPU architecture documentation.
3.) Again this is totally architecture dependent (some architectures may not permit access on byte-sized items at all, or have bus widths which are not even a multiple of 8 bits). So unless you are asking about a specific architecture you wont get any useful answers.
In general, the one answer to all three of those questions is "it depends on your system". Some more details:
Your memory system might not be byte-addressable. Besides that, you might incur a performance penalty to have your processor access unaligned data. Some processors (like older ARM chips, for example) just can't do it at all.
Read the manual for your processor and whatever ABI specification your code is being generated for,
Usually when people refer to data being at a certain alignment, it refers only to the first byte. So if the ABI spec said "data structure X must be 4-byte aligned", it means that X should be placed in memory at an address that's divisible by 4. Nothing is implied by that statment about the size or internal layout of structure X.
As far as your particular example goes, if the data is 4-byte aligned starting at address 1004, the next byte will be at 1005.
Its completely depends on the CPU you are using!
Some architectures deal only in 32 (or 36!) bit words and you need special instructions to load singel characters or haalf words.
Some cpus (notably PowerPC and other IBM risc chips) dont care about alignments and will load integers from odd addresses.
For most modern architectures you need to align integers to word boundies and long integers to double word boundries. This simplifies the circutry for loading registers and speeds things up ever so slighly.
Data alignment is required by CPU for performance reason. Intel website give out the detail on how to align the data in the memory
Data Alignment when Migrating to 64-Bit Intel® Architecture
One of these is the alignment of data items – their location in memory in relation to addresses that are multiples of four, eight or 16 bytes. Under the 16-bit Intel architecture, data alignment had little effect on performance, and its use was entirely optional. Under IA-32, aligning data correctly can be an important optimization, although its use is still optional with a very few exceptions, where correct alignment is mandatory. The 64-bit environment, however, imposes more-stringent requirements on data items. Misaligned objects cause program exceptions. For an item to be aligned properly, it must fulfill the requirements imposed by 64-bit Intel architecture (discussed shortly), plus those of the linker used to build the application.
The fundamental rule of data alignment is that the safest (and most widely supported) approach relies on what Intel terms "the natural boundaries." Those are the ones that occur when you round up the size of a data item to the next largest size of two, four, eight or 16 bytes. For example, a 10-byte float should be aligned on a 16-byte address, whereas 64-bit integers should be aligned to an eight-byte address. Because this is a 64-bit architecture, pointer sizes are all eight bytes wide, and so they too should align on eight-byte boundaries.
It is recommended that all structures larger than 16 bytes align on 16-byte boundaries. In general, for the best performance, align data as follows:
Align 8-bit data at any address
Align 16-bit data to be contained within an aligned four-byte word
Align 32-bit data so that its base address is a multiple of four
Align 64-bit data so that its base address is a multiple of eight
Align 80-bit data so that its base address is a multiple of sixteen
Align 128-bit data so that its base address is a multiple of sixteen
A 64-byte or greater data structure or array should be aligned so that its base address is a multiple of 64. Sorting data in decreasing size order is one heuristic for assisting with natural alignment. As long as 16-byte boundaries (and cache lines) are never crossed, natural alignment is not strictly necessary, although it is an easy way to enforce adherence to general alignment recommendations.
Aligning data correctly within structures can cause data bloat (due to the padding necessary to place fields correctly), so where necessary and possible, it is useful to reorganize structures so that fields that require the widest alignment are first in the structure. More on solving this problem appears in the article "Preparing Code for the IA-64 Architecture (Code Clean)."
For Intel Architecture, Chapter 4 DATA TYPES of Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer’s Manual answers your question 1.