I could only find bits and pieces of information on the symbol _start, which is called from the target startup code in order to establish the C runtime environment. This would be necessary to ensure that all initialized global/static variables are properly loaded prior to branching to main().
In my case, I am using an MCU with an ARM Cortex-R4F core CPU. When the device resets, I implement all of the steps recommended by the MCU manufacturer then attempt to branch to the symbol _start using the following lines of code:
extern void _start(void);
_start();
I am using something similar to the following to link the program:
armeb-eabi-gcc-7.5.0" -marm -fno-exceptions -Og -ffunction-sections -fdata-sections -g -gdwarf-3 -gstrict-dwarf -Wall -mbig-endian -mcpu=cortex-r4 -Wl,-Map,"app_tms570_dev.map" --entry main -static -Wl,--gc-sections -Wl,--build-id=none -specs="nosys.specs" -o[OUTPUT FILE NAME HERE] [ALL OBJECT FILES HERE] -Wl,-T[LINKER COMMAND FILE NAME HERE]
My toolchain in this case is gcc-linaro-7.5.0-2019.12-i686-mingw32_armeb-eabi, which is being used since my MCU device is big-endian.
As I trace through the call to symbol _start, I can see my program branch to symbol _start then a few unexpected things happen.
First, there are a couple of places where the following instruction is called:
EF123456 svc #0x123456
This basically generates a software interrupt, which causes the program to branch to the software interrupt handler that I have configured for the device.
Secondly, the device eventually branches to __libc_init_array then _init. However, symbol _init does not contain any branch instruction and allows the program to flow into _fini, which also does not contain any branch instruction and allows the program to flow into whatever code was placed next in memory. This eventually causes some type of abort exception, as would be expected.
The disassembly associated with _init and _fini:
_init():
00003b00: E1A0C00D mov r12, r13
00003b04: E92DDFF8 push {r3, r4, r5, r6, r7, r8, r9, r10, r11, r12, r14, pc}
00003b08: E24CB004 sub r11, r12, #4
_fini():
00003b0c: E1A0C00D mov r12, r13
00003b10: E92DDFF8 push {r3, r4, r5, r6, r7, r8, r9, r10, r11, r12, r14, pc}
00003b14: E24CB004 sub r11, r12, #4
Based on some other documentation I read, I also attempted to call main() directly, but this just caused the program to jump to main() without initializing anything. I also tried to call symbol __main() similar to what is done when using the ARM Compiler in order to execute startup code, but this symbol is not found.
Note that this is for a bare-metal-ish system that does not use semihosting.
My question is: Is there a way to set up the system and call a function that will establish the C runtime environment automatically and branch to main() using the GCC linker?
For the time being, I have implemented my own function to initialize .data sections and the .bss sections are already being zeroed at reset using a built in feature of the MCU device.
Adding some more details here:
The specific MCU that I am using should not be relevant, particularly taking the following discussion into consideration.
First, I have already set up the exception vectors for the device in an assembler file:
.section .excvecs,"ax",%progbits
.type Exc_Vects, %object
.size Exc_Vects, .-Exc_Vects
// See DDI0363G, Table 3-6
Exc_Vects:
b c_int00 // Reset vector
b exc_undef // Undefined instruction
b exc_software // Software
b exc_prefetch // Pre-fetch abort
b exc_data // Data abort
b exc_invalid // Invalid vector
There are two instructions that follow for the IRQ and FIQ interrupts as well, but they are set according to the MCU datasheet. I have defined handlers for the undefined instruction, prefetch abort, data abort and invalid vector exceptions. For the software exception I use some assembly to jump to an address that can be changed at runtime. My startup sequence begins at c_int00. These have all been tested and work with no problems.
My reset handler takes care of all of the steps needed for initializing the MCU in accordance with the MCU datasheet. This include initializing CPU registers and the stack pointers, which are loaded using symbols from the linker file.
The toolchain that I am using, noted above, includes the C standard libraries and other libraries needed to compile and link my program with no problems. This includes the symbol _start that I mentioned previously.
From what I understand, the function _start typically wraps main(). Before it calls main() it initializes .bss and .data sections, configures the heap, as well as performing some other tasks to set up the environment. When main() returns, it performs some clean up tasks and branches to a designated exit() function. (Side note: _start is defined in newlib based on the source code that I downloaded from linaro).
There is some detail regarding this in a separate response here:
What is the use of _start() in C?
I have been using the ARM Compiler as an alternative for the same project. There, __main performs these functions. For the stack initialization, I basically provide it an empty hook function and for exit I provide it with a function that safely terminates the program should main() return for some reason. I am not sure if something like this is needed for GCC.
I would note that I have included option -specs="nosys.specs" without option -nostartfiles. My understanding is that this avoids implementing some of the functions that do not want to use in my application, such as I/O operations, but links the startup code.
I am not using the heap in my project as dynamic memory use is frowned upon, but I was hoping to be able to use the startup code primarily in order to avoid having to remember to initialize .data sections manually. Above I noted that my application is baremetal-ish. I am actually using an RTOS and have the memory partitioned into blocks so that I can use the device MPU.
Related
I build as little OS for a CortexM4 CPU which is able to receive compiled binaries over UART and schedule them dynamically. I want to use that feature to craft a testsuite which uploads test programs being able to directly call OS functions like memory allocation without doing a SVC. Therefor I need to cast the fixed addresses of those OS routines to function pointers. Now, casting of memory addresses resulting in wrong / non-thumb instruction code - BL is needed instead of BLX, resulting in HardFaults.
void (*functionPtr_addr)(void);
functionPtr_addr = (void (*)()) (0x0800084C);
This is the assembly when calling this function
8000838: 4b03 ldr r3, [pc, #12] ; (8000848 <idle+0x14>)
800083a: 681b ldr r3, [r3, #0]
800083c: 4798 blx r3
Is there a way to force the BL instruction for such a case? It works with inline assembly, I could write macros but it would be much cleaner do it this way.
The code gets compiled and linked, among other things, with
-mcpu=cortex-m4 -mthumb.
Toolchain:
gcc version 12.2.0 (Arm GNU Toolchain 12.2.MPACBTI-Bet1 (Build arm-12-mpacbti.16))
bl instruction is limited in range. The compiler does not know where your code will be placed so it can't know if the instruction bl can be used.
resulting in HardFaults.
The address passed to blx has to be odd on Cortex-M4 uCs to execute the code in the Thumb mode. Your address is even and the uC tries to execute ARM code not supported by this core.
Suppose that in a bare-metal(arm-none-eabi-gcc) arm v5 environment where functions are stored at fixed locations and the underlying 'application' can only access the functions through absolute address.
So, a function is defined as:
.type name, %function; \
.extern name; \
.equ name,0x400099
which can be invoked from the C code like this name(args);
however,due to the nature of the shared binary(compiled as -fPIE), the resulting veneer produced is the following:
00012294 <name_veneer>:
00012294 ldr r12,[DAT_0001229c]
00012298 add pc=>LAB_412331,pc,r12
0001229c .word 400099h
Where the linker adds the current location of PC to the final destination which is incorrect and instead something like following is preferred:
00012294 <name_veneer>:
00012294 ldr r12,[DAT_0001229c]
00012298 mov pc,r12
0001229c .word 400099h
System information
The underlying application has an unknown entry point during run time, hence the need for PIE.
The application is loaded from network for debugging purposes.
The SOC containing the CPU is a proprietary design.
You could load function address directly to register by having macro like (if I got your question right)
.equ name,0x400099
movw r12, #:lower16:name
movt r12, #:upper16:name // after this instruction r12 == 0x400099
mov pc, r12
I'm currently having a weird issue when trying to run a C program that calls a very simple ARM assembly function. Here's my C code:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
extern void getNumber(int* pointer);
int main()
{
int* pointer = malloc(sizeof(int));
getNumber(pointer);
printf("%d\n", *pointer);
return 0;
}
And here's my assembly code:
.section .text
.align 4
.arm
.global getNumber
.type getNumber STT_FUNC
getNumber:
mov r1, #0
str r1, [r0]
bx lr
So far so good. However, if I add a line with mov r7, #0 at the top of getNumber, the program segfaults when trying to access pointer. After inspecting it with gdb I noticed now the pointer itself is stored at a very low address, such as 0xa.
Now, I did a bit of research and apparently r7 is the frame pointer for THUMB code (according to this). However, I'm clearly stating I don't want to use THUMB instructions in the .arm line in my assembly code. Why on earth is it failing?
I'm compiling both the .c and .s files using arm-linux-gnueabihf-gcc, and I'm running the program on a Cortex-A8 based board running Arch Linux.
Edit: The program runs fine if I compile using the -fomit-frame-pointer flag. However, I still want to know why is it using r7 as the frame pointer.
Edit 2: It's still failing even if I use .code 32 instead of .arm.
The ARM Procedure Call Standard specifies the following:
A subroutine must preserve the contents of the registers r4-r8, r10, r11 and SP (and r9 in PCS variants that designate r9 as v6).
So your assembly language subroutine must save & restore r7 if it uses it.
You might be avoiding the problem with your small test program by by not compiling for Thumb mode, but you're just accidentally avoiding the problem. Anything that links to your assembly routine is entitled to expect that r7 will be preserved.
You're crashing the program because your are corrupting the frame pointer, like you mentioned. There is really no rhyme or reason to the convention. Just that ARM reserves certain registers for certain things. Kinda like in x86 esp is the stack pointer.
Here's a pretty good reference for registers to avoid:
http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms253599(v=vs.80).aspx
I finally got it: doing $ arm-linux-gnueabihf-gcc -v showed me the default options my compiler is using. Among those is: --with-mode=thumb.
Compiling with -marm fixed it. Now it's working as intended!
Edit: Upon reading the comments here I realize I was mistaken. I should've saved/restored r7 so it wouldn't screw up the rest of my program. Good thing I learned this now with a toy project and not while working on something real!
I have this very simple code:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main()
{
long v = 35;
double app = (double)v;
app /= 100;
app = log10(app);
printf("Calculated log10 %lf\n", app);
return 0;
}
This code works perfectly on x86, but doesn't work on arm, on which the result is 0.00000. Some ideas?
Other info:
Operating system: linux 3.2.27
I build arm toolchain with ct-ng: arm-unknown-linux-gnueabi-
libc version 2.13
Output of gcc -v:
Using built-in specs.
COLLECT_GCC=arm-unknown-linux-gnueabi-gcc
COLLECT_LTO_WRAPPER=/opt/x-tools/arm-unknown-linux-gnueabi/libexec/gcc/arm-unknown-linux-gnueabi/4.5.1/lto-wrapper
Target: arm-unknown-linux-gnueabi
Configured with: /home/mirko/misc/rasppi-ct-ng-files/.build/src/gcc-4.5.1/configure --build=x86_64-build_unknown-linux-gnu --host=x86_64-build_unknown-linux-gnu --target=arm-unknown-linux-gnueabi --prefix=/opt/x-tools/arm-unknown-linux-gnueabi --with-sysroot=/opt/x-tools/arm-unknown-linux-gnueabi/arm-unknown-linux-gnueabi//sys-root --enable-languages=c --disable-multilib --with-pkgversion=crosstool-NG-1.9.3 --enable-__cxa_atexit --disable-libmudflap --disable-libgomp --disable-libssp --with-host-libstdcxx='-static-libgcc -Wl,-Bstatic,-lstdc++,-Bdynamic -lm' --with-gmp=/home/mirko/misc/rasppi-ct-ng-files/.build/arm-unknown-linux-gnueabi/build/static --with-mpfr=/home/mirko/misc/rasppi-ct-ng-files/.build/arm-unknown-linux-gnueabi/build/static --with-mpc=/home/mirko/misc/rasppi-ct-ng-files/.build/arm-unknown-linux-gnueabi/build/static --with-ppl=/home/mirko/misc/rasppi-ct-ng-files/.build/arm-unknown-linux-gnueabi/build/static --with-cloog=/home/mirko/misc/rasppi-ct-ng-files/.build/arm-unknown-linux-gnueabi/build/static --with-libelf=/home/mirko/misc/rasppi-ct-ng-files/.build/arm-unknown-linux-gnueabi/build/static --enable-threads=posix --enable-target-optspace --with-local-prefix=/opt/x-tools/arm-unknown-linux-gnueabi/arm-unknown-linux-gnueabi//sys-root --disable-nls --enable-symvers=gnu --enable-c99 --enable-long-long
Thread model: posix
gcc version 4.5.1 (crosstool-NG-1.9.3)
Floating point support on ARM Linux distributions is not trivial. Because of that you should use a toolchain matching your system that is operating system & hardware and use the right compile switches.
First thing you need to understand ARM's calling convention which is about "how arguments are passed when you call a function?". ARM being a RISC architecture, can only work on registers. There are no instructions manipulating memory directly. If you need to change a value in memory you first need to load it to a register, modify it, then you need to store it back on the memory.
When you call a function you may need to pass arguments to it, you can put arguments on stack (memory) but since ARM can only work with registers first thing your function would probably do will be loading them back to registers. To avoid this waste ARM calling convention uses registers to pass arguments. However since ARM has a limited number of registers, calling convention also dictates you to use only first four (r0-r3) registers for the first four arguments, remaining must still use stack to be passed.
Second thing is early ARM cores didn't have any floating point support, operations where implemented in software. (This is what is still supported via gcc's -mfloat-abi=soft.)
We can easily demonstrate what this means via following snippet.
float pi2(float a) {
return a * 3.14f;
}
Compiling this via -c -O3 -mfloat-abi=soft and obdumping gives us
00000000 <pi2>:
0: f24f 51c3 movw r1, #62915 ; 0xf5c3
4: b508 push {r3, lr}
6: f2c4 0148 movt r1, #16456 ; 0x4048
a: f7ff fffe bl 0 <__aeabi_fmul>
e: bd08 pop {r3, pc}
As you can see (actually it is not visible :) ) pi2 gets its parameter in r0, populates pi constant on r1 and uses __aeabi_fmul to multiply those and return result in r0. Since __aeabi_fmul also uses same calling convention, details about r0 is not visible. All our function does to populate r1 and delegate it to __aeabi_fmul.
When floating hardware support added to ARM (again because of architecture style), it came with its own set of registers (s0, s1, ...).
If we compile same snippet with -c -O3 -mfloat-abi=softfp and dump we get
00000000 <pi2>:
0: eddf 7a04 vldr s15, [pc, #16] ; 14 <pi2+0x14>
4: ee07 0a10 vmov s14, r0
8: ee27 7a27 vmul.f32 s14, s14, s15
c: ee17 0a10 vmov r0, s14
10: 4770 bx lr
12: bf00 nop
14: 4048f5c3 .word 0x4048f5c3
As you can see now compiler doesn't create a call to __aeabi_fmul but instead it creates a vmul.f32 instruction after it moves argument located in r0 to s14 and populates 3.14 on s15. After multiplication instruction it moves result available in s14 back to r0 since any caller of this function would expect it because of the calling convention.
Now if you think pi2 as a library provided to you by some third party, you can understand that both soft and softfp implementations do the same thing for you and you can use them interchangeably. If system provides them for you, you wouldn't care if your app runs on a system with hardware floating point support or not. This was quite good to keep old software running on new hardware.
However while keeping compability this approach introduces the overhead of moving values between ARM registers and FP registers. This obviously effects performance and addressed by a new calling convention, called hard by gcc. This new convention states that if you have floating point arguments in your function you can utilize floating point registers interleaved with normal ones, as well as you can return floating point values in floating point register s0.
Again if we compile our snippet with -c -O3 -mfloat-abi=hard and dump we get
00000000 <pi2>:
0: eddf 7a02 vldr s15, [pc, #8] ; c <pi2+0xc>
4: ee20 0a27 vmul.f32 s0, s0, s15
8: 4770 bx lr
a: bf00 nop
c: 4048f5c3 .word 0x4048f5c3
You can see there is no registers getting moved around. Argument to pi2 gets passed in s0, compiler created code to populate 3.14 in s15 and uses vmul.f32 s0, s0, s15 to get result we want in s0.
Big problem with this new convention is while you improve the code produced by compiler you completely kill compability. You can't expect an application built with hard convention to work with libraries built for soft/softfp and an application built for softfp won't work with libraries built for hard.
For more information on calling conventions you should check ARM's website.
I am working with an ARM Cortex M3 chip (STM32F2) and ST provides a "standard peripheral library". It has some useful .c and .h files. It also has .s files.
What is the purpose of these .s files in the context of a C project? How do I get my compiler/linker/? to take them into account?
The .s extension is the convention used by GNU and many other tool-chains for assembler files.
Last I looked the STM32 Standard Peripheral Library itself contains no assembler files, however the CMSIS library contains start-up code for various STM32 parts, for example startup_stm32f2xx.s is start-up code for all STM32F2xx series devices. There are different implementations for different tool-chains; you need to build and link the file associated with your specific part and tool-chain. If you are using an example project that builds and runs or an IDE that creates part-specific projects for you, this will probably already have been done - if you have code that runs it certainly has.
How you build and link the code will depend on what tool-chain you are using. Most IDE based tools will automatically recognise the extension and invoke the assembler to generate an object file that will be linked like any other. The exact content differs slightly between tool-chain versions, but primarily creates the C runtime environment (stack and heap), initialises the processor, defines an initial interrupt/exception vector table, initialises static data and jumps to main().
The core of the file for the Keil/ARM RealView version for example looks like this:
; Reset handler
Reset_Handler PROC
EXPORT Reset_Handler [WEAK]
IMPORT SystemInit
IMPORT __main
LDR R0, =SystemInit
BLX R0
LDR R0, =__main
BX R0
ENDP
Reset_Handler is the address Program Counter (PC) register will be set to after a processor reset.
SystemInit is an external C code function that does the bulk of the initialisation - this may need customisation for your hardware. Cortex-M is unusual in that it can start running C code immediately after reset because the vector table includes both the reset address and the initial stack pointer address, which is automatically loaded to the SP register on reset. As a result you do not need much assembler knowledge to get one running.
__main() is the compiler supplied entry point for your C code. It is not the main() function you write, but performs initialisation for the standard library, static data, the heap before calling your `main()' function.
The GCC version is somewhat more involved since it does much of the work done by __main() in the Keil/ARM RealView version, but essentially it performs the same function.
Note that in the CMSIS SystemInit() is defined in system_stm32f2xx.c, and may need customisation for your board (correct crystal frequency, PLL setup, external SRAM configuration etc.). Because this is C code, and well commented, you will probably be more comfortable with it.
They usually contain assembly code. The assembler turns them into object files which are later linked by the linker with the main stuff. But I imagine it does depend on the compiler, toolchain etc.
The .s files usually contain the Vector tables. It defines what should the system do when an interrupt occurs. This table (code) is placed in a memory address defined by you in linker file. For example, every time a reset occurs what or rather where should your processor begin from , what code should it run. similarly, there are other handlers ( interrupt vectors). In STM32 , usually the controller loops on particular handlers.
As given in the below example:See this link for detailed explanation
.section INTERRUPT_VECTOR, "x"
.global _Reset
_Reset:
B Reset_Handler /* Reset */
B . /* Undefined */
B . /* SWI */
B . /* Prefetch Abort */
B . /* Data Abort */
B . /* reserved */
B . /* IRQ */
B . /* FIQ */
Reset_Handler:
LDR sp, =stack_top
BL c_entry
B .
This assembly code later is converted to object files and linked with your .c files and .ld to create a .elf or .bin files.
You've probably got a Keil-based development environment for your ST kit. Depending on the version of your compiler, the project file should have different sections for C, C++, and assembler code. In your IDE, open your project and look for "Project Properties" or something like it.
You can import and export symbols to and from the assembler code so that it and the C/C++ code will link. With Keil it all integrates reasonably well.
The EXPORT directive tells the assembler to make the specified symbol public so that your C/C++ code can link to it.
The IMPORT directive tells the assembler that the specified symbol is defined elsewhere and will be resolved at link time.